Who Are the Zuni?
The Zuni (A:shiwi, "the flesh") are a Pueblo people of western New Mexico, numbering approximately 12,000 enrolled members. Unlike other Pueblo peoples who speak various languages, the Zuni speak a **language isolate**—unrelated to any other known language—suggesting ancient, unique origins. Living at **Zuni Pueblo** (Halona Idiwan'a, "the middle place") since at least 1350 CE, they are descendants of the ancestral Puebloans who built the great houses at Chaco Canyon. The Zuni are world-renowned for their intricate **jewelry** (particularly petit point and needlepoint turquoise work), elaborate **kachina** religious ceremonies, and maintaining one of the most intact indigenous cultures in North America despite centuries of outside pressure.
The Middle Place and Cosmology
Zuni cosmology places their pueblo at the exact center of the universe—the "middle place" (Idiwan'a) where the Zuni emerged from the underworld after long migrations. The emergence myth describes the people's journey from the dark inner worlds, guided by the twin War Gods, searching for the middle place where they were destined to settle. This worldview organizes all Zuni life: the pueblo's layout mirrors cosmic structure, ceremonies maintain universal balance, and individuals contribute to cosmic harmony through proper behavior. The sacred **Zuni Salt Lake** (Ma'kya:wan'a), located 40 miles south of the pueblo, is both a pilgrimage destination and source of sacred salt. Six **kiva** societies correspond to the six directions (including zenith and nadir), each responsible for specific ceremonies maintaining the world's balance.
Kachinas and Religious Life
Zuni religious life centers on the **kachinas** (kokko)—supernatural beings who bring rain, ensure fertility, and maintain cosmic balance. During the ceremonial calendar, masked dancers become kachinas, serving as intermediaries between the human and spiritual worlds. The **Shalako** ceremony, held in late November/December, is the most elaborate—six 10-foot-tall Shalako figures visit newly built homes, blessing them and bringing agricultural prosperity. Unlike Hopi kachina dolls made for children's education and sale, Zuni religious objects are traditionally not sold or displayed, though some artists now create secular versions. The Zuni successfully sued to recover **Ahayu:da** (war god figures) illegally sold to museums and collectors, setting precedent for indigenous repatriation rights. Religious societies, each with secret knowledge, initiate members and conduct ceremonies throughout the year.
Jewelry and Artistic Traditions
Zuni jewelry represents perhaps the highest achievement in Native American silverwork and lapidary art. Unlike Navajo jewelry emphasizing silver work, Zuni specializes in **stone-setting techniques**: petit point (tiny stones set individually), needlepoint (elongated stones creating sunburst patterns), inlay (mosaic-like stone arrangements), and fetish carving. Traditional materials include turquoise (the sacred "sky stone"), coral, jet, and shell. The **fetish** tradition—small carved animal figures imbued with spiritual power—predates European contact; today, Zuni fetish carvings are highly collectible while retaining religious significance. Other arts include pottery (particularly decorated with deer and heartline motifs) and weaving. The Zuni economy depends substantially on arts sales, with most households including jewelry makers or carvers, creating tension between economic necessity and concerns about cultural commodification.
Contemporary Zuni Life
The Zuni have achieved remarkable cultural preservation. The **Zuni language** retains approximately 95% fluency among tribal members—extraordinary compared to most Native American languages. Traditional religion remains vibrant, with kiva societies functioning, ceremonies continuing, and most Zuni participating in traditional practices alongside Christianity (introduced by Spanish missionaries in 1629). The tribe operates **A:shiwi A:wan Museum and Heritage Center** documenting and preserving culture. However, challenges exist: water rights disputes with neighboring communities, economic dependence on volatile art markets, youth drug abuse, and diabetes epidemic from dietary changes. The Zuni pursued groundbreaking repatriation of sacred objects, including Ahayu:da from the Smithsonian and Denver Art Museum, establishing legal precedents. Their successful maintenance of language, religion, and community demonstrates that indigenous survival is possible even amid American colonization's pressures.
References
- Cushing, F. H. (1896). Outlines of Zuñi Creation Myths. Bureau of American Ethnology.
- Bunzel, R. L. (1932). Introduction to Zuni Ceremonialism. Bureau of American Ethnology.
- Tedlock, D. (1972). Finding the Center: Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians. University of Nebraska Press.
- Merrill, W. L., et al. (1993). "The Return of the Ahayu:da: Lessons for Repatriation." Current Anthropology.