Who Are the Zuni?
The Zuni (A:shiwi, meaning "the flesh") are a Pueblo people inhabiting the Zuni River valley in western New Mexico. Numbering approximately 12,000, most live in the main village of Zuni Pueblo (Halona:wa, "Red Ant Place") and surrounding communities on the Zuni reservation. They speak Zuni, a language isolate with no known relatives—one of only a few Native American isolates. The Zuni are descendants of the ancestral Puebloan cultures that built the great houses of Chaco Canyon and other Southwest sites. Their village was the "Cibola" sought by Spanish conquistadors in 1540. The Zuni have maintained remarkable cultural continuity, with their complex ceremonial calendar, religious societies, and artistic traditions continuing into the present despite centuries of outside pressure.
Religion and Ceremony
Zuni religion is extraordinarily complex, centered on maintaining cosmic balance through elaborate ceremonies. The Zuni conceive of themselves as living at the "Middle Place" (Itiwana) of the world, where the six directions meet. Kachinas (kokko) are ancestral spirits who bring rain and blessings; masked dancers impersonate them during ceremonies. Multiple religious societies (medicine societies, priesthoods, kiva groups) organize ceremonial life, with different societies responsible for different aspects of community welfare. The Shalako ceremony in late November/December, when giant kachina figures visit newly built houses, is the most spectacular annual event. Zuni keep religious knowledge private—outsiders are not permitted to witness many ceremonies, and photography/recording are strictly prohibited. This secrecy has protected traditions but also creates tensions with researchers and tourists.
Jewelry and Art
Zuni artistry, particularly jewelry and fetish carving, is internationally renowned. Zuni jewelers developed distinctive techniques: needlepoint (fine pointed stones in silver settings), petit point (small round stones), cluster work, and inlay (stones set flush in silver). Turquoise, coral, jet, and shell are traditional materials. Each family often specializes in particular techniques passed through generations. Fetish carving—small animal figures believed to hold spiritual power—is another Zuni specialty; originally made for ceremonial use, fetishes are now also created for sale. Zuni pottery, though less well-known than jewelry, includes distinctive painted wares. The art economy provides substantial income to Zuni Pueblo; nearly every household includes artists. Questions of authenticity and competition from imitation "Zuni-style" jewelry made overseas concern the community.
Contemporary Zuni
Modern Zuni maintain one of the most culturally intact Native American communities. The Zuni language is relatively healthy—most community members speak it, and language programs teach children. Traditional religion continues; the ceremonial calendar still organizes community life. Clan membership and traditional social organization remain meaningful. The tribal government, while functioning within the American system, incorporates traditional leadership. Economic challenges include high unemployment and limited development options on the remote reservation; many Zunis commute to Gallup for work. Water rights disputes with neighboring communities continue. Land claims resulted in return of sacred Zuni Salt Lake and ongoing management of Zuni Heaven (Kothluwalawa), an important pilgrimage site in Arizona. The Zuni demonstrate that indigenous cultural continuity is possible even after centuries of contact, though vigilance against erosion continues.
References
- Bunzel, R. L. (1932). Zuni Ceremonialism
- Tedlock, D. (1972). Finding the Center: Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians
- Ferguson, T. J. & Hart, E. R. (1985). A Zuni Atlas