The Xhosa People

Who Are the Xhosa?

The Xhosa are the second-largest ethnic group in South Africa, numbering approximately 8 million people, primarily residing in the Eastern Cape province. They are famous for their distinctive click consonants—sounds borrowed from the indigenous Khoisan languages through centuries of interaction and intermarriage. The Xhosa language (isiXhosa) features three types of clicks, making it one of Africa's most phonetically distinctive Bantu languages. Historically organized into kingdoms and chiefdoms, the Xhosa resisted European colonial expansion for nearly a century during the Xhosa Wars (1779-1879), the longest military resistance in South African history. The Xhosa produced many of South Africa's most prominent political leaders, including Nelson Mandela, Thabo Mbeki, and Oliver Tambo. Their culture emphasizes ubuntu (humanity toward others), elaborate initiation ceremonies, and rich oral traditions including the praise poetry of imbongi (praise poets).

History and Colonial Resistance

The Xhosa migrated to present-day South Africa around 1,000 years ago, establishing kingdoms along the Eastern Cape's fertile river valleys. By the 18th century, they were organized into several chiefdoms including the Gcaleka, Rharhabe, Thembu, and Mpondo, each led by paramount chiefs claiming descent from the founding ancestor Xhosa. The Frontier Wars (also called Xhosa Wars or Cape Frontier Wars) lasted 100 years as Xhosa kingdoms resisted Dutch and British colonial expansion. These conflicts involved military battles, cattle raiding, and territorial disputes over grazing lands. The devastating Cattle Killing movement of 1856-57 saw the Xhosa slaughter over 400,000 cattle following prophecies that this would resurrect ancestors who would drive colonizers away—instead, famine killed 40,000 people and broke Xhosa resistance. Despite military defeat, Xhosa people maintained cultural identity through apartheid and became leaders in South Africa's liberation struggle.

Ulwaluko: Initiation and Manhood

The ulwaluko initiation ritual marks the transition from boyhood to manhood and remains central to Xhosa cultural identity. Young men aged 16-20 spend weeks in mountain initiation schools during winter, undergoing circumcision and receiving instruction about Xhosa customs, responsibilities, and manhood. Initiates paint their bodies with white ochre and wear traditional blankets, living in isolation while elders teach them about ancestry, respect, and proper behavior. Upon completion, they burn their initiation huts and return home as men (amadoda), ready for marriage and full participation in community life. Women undergo intonjane, a separate coming-of-age ceremony celebrating first menstruation. Though controversial for health and safety reasons, these traditions continue because they represent cultural identity and connection to ancestors—even Nelson Mandela underwent ulwaluko and wrote about its profound personal significance.

Ubuntu Philosophy and Social Values

The Xhosa cultural concept of ubuntu—often translated as "humanity toward others" or "I am because we are"—emphasizes interconnectedness, compassion, and communal responsibility. This philosophy underpins Xhosa social organization, conflict resolution, and moral education. Ubuntu teaches that individual wellbeing depends on community wellbeing, encouraging generosity, respect for elders, and mutual support. During apartheid, ubuntu philosophy influenced resistance strategies and post-apartheid South Africa adopted it as a national value, with Archbishop Desmond Tutu promoting it in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Xhosa society organizes through clan systems (iziduko), with members tracing descent through patrilineal lines and identifying by clan names and praise names (izithakazelo). Marriage between clan members is prohibited, ensuring genetic diversity and social networks.

Oral Literature and Artistic Expression

Xhosa oral literature flourishes through multiple forms. Imbongi (praise poets) perform spontaneous poetry at ceremonies, political gatherings, and important events, praising leaders while also critiquing them through metaphor and historical allusions. These performances combine poetry, song, and dance, requiring extensive knowledge of history, genealogy, and figurative language. Intsomi (folktales) feature characters like the trickster Hlakanyana and teach moral lessons through animal stories and fantastical narratives. Xhosa music includes umngqokolo (overtone singing), traditional instruments like the uhadi (musical bow), and church music—Xhosa communities transformed Christian hymns into distinctive African harmonies. Traditional dress includes umbhaco (ceremonial dress) featuring geometric beadwork patterns, where colors and patterns communicate messages about age, social status, and clan affiliation.

Modern Xhosa Culture and Identity

Xhosa culture profoundly shapes modern South African identity. IsiXhosa is one of South Africa's 11 official languages, used in education, media, and government. The Eastern Cape produces many of South Africa's political leaders—Xhosa cultural values of ubuntu and communal responsibility influenced ANC ideology and post-apartheid reconciliation efforts. However, Xhosa communities face challenges including poverty in rural Eastern Cape, health risks from traditional circumcision practices, and youth migration to urban areas. Urban Xhosa balance traditional culture with modern life—maintaining initiation ceremonies, speaking isiXhosa, and honoring ancestors while participating in South Africa's diverse, cosmopolitan society. The Xhosa diaspora in Johannesburg, Cape Town, and internationally maintains cultural connections through associations, traditional ceremonies, and language preservation efforts. Xhosa writers like Sindiwe Magona and musicians performing in isiXhosa ensure cultural traditions remain vibrant and relevant to new generations.