Who Are the Xhosa?
The Xhosa are South Africa's second-largest ethnic group, numbering approximately 8 million (16% of the population), primarily in the Eastern Cape province. They speak isiXhosa, a Nguni Bantu language famous for its click consonants—borrowed from neighboring Khoisan peoples. The Xhosa were the first Bantu-speaking peoples to encounter European colonizers, fighting nine "Frontier Wars" against British expansion (1779-1879). Nelson Mandela and many anti-apartheid leaders were Xhosa, shaping the liberation movement. Contemporary Xhosa maintain distinctive cultural practices—initiation rituals, traditional dress, and oral traditions—while playing central roles in South African society.
Frontier Wars
The Xhosa fought the longest sustained resistance to European colonialism in southern Africa. Nine "Frontier Wars" (1779-1879), also called Cape Frontier Wars or Xhosa Wars, saw Xhosa kingdoms resist British and Dutch expansion. Great leaders—Maqoma, Sandile, Hintsa—led military campaigns. British tactics included scorched earth, cattle seizure, and land confiscation. The cattle-killing movement (1856-1857), when prophetess Nongqawuse's visions led Xhosa to slaughter cattle expecting spiritual renewal, caused devastating famine—whether manipulation, mass hysteria, or resistance remains debated. This century of warfare shaped Xhosa identity and Eastern Cape landscape.
Initiation and Culture
Xhosa cultural practices remain vibrant. Male initiation (ulwaluko)—involving circumcision, seclusion, and instruction—transforms boys into men. Initiates are isolated, painted with white clay, and taught responsibilities. Despite controversies about botched procedures and deaths, the practice continues as identity marker. The distinctive white blanket and clay marking of recent initiates is commonly seen. Traditional dress—beaded necklaces, blankets, headdresses—varies by age, gender, and status. Oral traditions, including izibongo (praise poetry), preserve history. These practices distinguish Xhosa identity, particularly important as urbanization challenges traditional structures.
Political Leadership
Xhosa people have led South African political movements disproportionately. Nelson Mandela, from the Thembu royal family (a Xhosa sub-group), is the most famous. Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo, Robert Sobukwe, Steve Biko, and Thabo Mbeki were all Xhosa. This leadership emerged partly from early mission education in the Eastern Cape—Lovedale and Fort Hare produced generations of educated elite. Some argue Xhosa dominance in the ANC creates ethnic tensions; others note this reflects historical circumstance not ethnic exclusion. The liberation movement's Xhosa heritage shapes South African memory and politics.
Contemporary Xhosa
Modern Xhosa face the Eastern Cape's economic challenges—poverty rates exceed national averages; unemployment is severe; service delivery problems persist. Many migrate to Cape Town (where Xhosa dominate township populations) and Johannesburg for work. Traditional authorities (chiefs) still influence rural areas, sometimes conflicting with democratic governance. Cultural practices persist in modified forms; isiXhosa language thrives in daily use, media, and literature. How Xhosa navigate poverty, urbanization, and tradition—maintaining identity while participating fully in modern South Africa—shapes their contemporary experience as one of Africa's most politically significant peoples.
References
- Peires, J. (1989). The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856-7
- Mostert, N. (1992). Frontiers: The Epic of South Africa's Creation
- Mandela, N. (1994). Long Walk to Freedom