Who Are the Santhal?
The Santhal (Santal) are one of India's largest Adivasi (tribal) groups, numbering approximately 7-8 million across Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and Assam, with additional populations in Bangladesh and Nepal. They speak Santhali, an Austroasiatic language of the Munda family—one of India's oldest language families, predating Indo-Aryan arrival. In 2003, Santhali became the first tribal language added to the Indian Constitution's Eighth Schedule. The Santhal are renowned for their history of resistance, particularly the Santhal Rebellion of 1855-56 against British colonial rule and exploitative landlords, one of the largest indigenous uprisings in South Asian history.
The Santhal Rebellion
The Santhal Rebellion (Hul, "revolution" in Santhali) of 1855-56 was one of colonial India's most significant indigenous uprisings. Led by brothers Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, approximately 30,000-50,000 Santhal rose against British rule, moneylenders (mahajans), and landlords (zamindars) who had dispossessed them through fraudulent debt and land transfers. The Santhal proclaimed their own government and temporarily expelled British authority from their region. The British responded with overwhelming military force, killing an estimated 10,000-25,000 Santhal, including women and children. Despite the brutal suppression, the rebellion forced British reforms including the creation of the Santhal Parganas district with special protections. The rebellion is commemorated as Hul Diwas on June 30th; Sidhu and Kanhu are national heroes.
Culture and Religion
Traditional Santhal religion (Sarna) centers on the sacred grove (jaher) found in every village, where spirits and ancestors are honored. Bonga (spirits) inhabit the natural world; the supreme being Thakur Jiu created humans from clay. The naike (village priest) and ojha (medicine man/exorcist) maintain spiritual traditions. Rituals mark agricultural cycles, life transitions, and community events. The distinctive Santhal dance forms, accompanied by the tamak and tumdak drums, express cultural identity. Santhal society features clan exogamy and village councils (manjhi-hadam) for governance. Christian missionaries have converted some Santhal since the 19th century, creating religious diversity. Many Santhal practice syncretic combinations of traditional and Christian beliefs.
Contemporary Santhal
Modern Santhal face multiple challenges. Mining and industrial development displace communities; the Santhal Parganas' mineral wealth has attracted extractive industries that damage environments and livelihoods. Forests that supported traditional life have been depleted. Land alienation continues despite protective laws. Education has expanded, though quality and access remain uneven. The Santhali language survives strongly; it gained official recognition and has a dedicated script (Ol Chiki, created in 1925). Jharkhand's 2000 creation as a tribal-majority state partially fulfilled demands for autonomy, though benefits have been mixed. Santhal activists continue advocating for land rights, forest access, and cultural preservation. The Santhal demonstrate both the long history of indigenous resistance in South Asia and the ongoing struggles facing Adivasi communities in developing India.
References
- Carrin-Bouez, M. (1986). La Fleur et L'Os: Symbolisme et Rituel chez les Santals
- Datta, K. K. (1940). The Santal Insurrection of 1855-57
- Archer, W. G. (1974). The Hill of Flutes: Life, Love and Poetry in Tribal India