Who Are the Santhals?
The Santhals are India's largest Scheduled Tribe, numbering approximately 7 million across Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and smaller numbers in Bangladesh and Nepal. They speak Santhali, an Austroasiatic (Munda) language—one of India's official languages since 2003. The Santhals have a unique script (Ol Chiki) developed in 1925. Historically forest dwellers and shifting cultivators, Santhals were pushed to marginal lands by expanding Hindu society. The 1855 Santhal Rebellion against British and landlord exploitation was one of India's largest tribal uprisings. Today, Santhals navigate between traditional practices and integration into mainstream Indian society.
The Santhal Rebellion
The Santhal Hool (Rebellion) of 1855-56 was a massive uprising against British colonialism and exploitative landlords (zamindars) and moneylenders (mahajans). Led by Sidho and Kanhu Murmu (now folk heroes), approximately 60,000 Santhals rose with traditional weapons against debt bondage and land alienation. The British deployed regular army and artillery; 15,000-25,000 Santhals were killed before the rebellion was suppressed. The revolt led to creation of the Santhal Parganas district with special administrative provisions. The Hool remains central to Santhal identity—celebrated annually and invoked in contemporary land rights struggles.
Ol Chiki Script
Santhali is one of few Indian tribal languages with its own indigenous script—Ol Chiki, created in 1925 by Pandit Raghunath Murmu. Before Ol Chiki, Santhali was written in Bengali, Devanagari, or Roman scripts, none fully suitable for its sounds. Ol Chiki uses unique characters reflecting Santhal cosmology and culture. The script took decades to gain acceptance; it's now used in schools, publications, and official contexts. Recognition of Santhali in India's Eighth Schedule (2003) and the script's spread demonstrate successful indigenous language revitalization—a model for other tribal languages seeking recognition.
Religion and Society
Traditional Santhal religion centers on Bonga—spirits inhabiting nature, ancestors, and special deities. The village priest (naeke) performs rituals; sacred groves (jaher) serve as worship sites. Major festivals include Sohrai (cattle worship after harvest), Baha (spring flower festival), and Karam (tree worship). Christian missionaries converted many Santhals (30%+); Hinduization also occurs. The census struggle over Santhal religious identity—whether to categorize as Hindu, Christian, or a distinct religion—reflects broader questions about tribal identity in India. Traditional matrilineal elements and relatively egalitarian gender relations distinguish Santhal society from mainstream Hindu patterns.
Contemporary Santhals
Modern Santhals face land alienation (despite legal protections, land transfers to non-tribals continue), displacement from mining and industrialization (their homeland is mineral-rich), and economic marginalization. Jharkhand state creation (2000)—partly responding to tribal demands—brought limited benefits. Education has increased; a Santhal professional class exists. Yet poverty rates remain high. Cultural identity persists through language (strengthened by official recognition), festivals, and community solidarity. How Santhals protect land rights, maintain cultural identity, and achieve economic advancement while resisting displacement defines their ongoing struggle as India's largest tribal group.
References
- Carrin-Bouez, M. (1991). Santal: An Ethnic Group in Search of a Great Tradition
- Datta, K. K. (1940). The Santal Insurrection of 1855-57
- Troisi, J. (1979). Tribal Religion: Religious Beliefs and Practices among the Santals