Who Are the Lumbee?
The Lumbee are an indigenous people of Robeson County, North Carolina, with approximately 55,000 enrolled members—the largest tribe east of the Mississippi and ninth-largest in the United States. Despite this size, the Lumbee are not fully federally recognized; the 1956 Lumbee Act acknowledged them as Indian but specifically barred federal services. Named for the Lumber (Lumbee) River, they have no surviving indigenous language but maintain distinct cultural identity. The Lumbee have fought for full federal recognition for decades, facing opposition from other tribes concerned about resource competition. Their identity, origins, and political status remain contested and complex.
Origins Debate
Lumbee origins are debated. The most popular theory connects them to the Lost Colony of Roanoke and local tribes; Lumbee surnames match Roanoke colonist names. Scholarly evidence suggests diverse origins—likely descended from Cheraw, Siouan, and other coastal Carolina peoples who coalesced in the swamps of Robeson County to escape colonial pressure. Whatever their precise origins, the Lumbee maintained Indian identity through centuries when that status brought only disadvantage. They attended Indian schools, were excluded from white society, and developed distinct community institutions—a three-race social system prevailed in the Southeast.
Battle of Hayes Pond
In 1958, the Ku Klux Klan announced a rally in Robeson County to intimidate the Lumbee. Instead, hundreds of armed Lumbee surrounded the Klansmen, shot out their lights, and routed them—a dramatic victory that made national news. The "Battle of Hayes Pond" became a symbol of Lumbee willingness to fight for respect. This event occurred just two years after the Lumbee Act; partial recognition provided psychological space for asserting dignity. The story resonates: marginalized people defending themselves against racial terrorism. The Klan never returned to Robeson County.
Contemporary Lumbee
Modern Lumbee pursue full federal recognition while building institutions. The University of North Carolina at Pemberton serves the community; Robeson County is majority-Lumbee. The tribe operates cultural programs, social services, and advocacy efforts. Without full recognition, the Lumbee lack federal services and cannot operate gaming. Recognition legislation has passed the House multiple times but stalled in the Senate—opposition from existing federally recognized tribes concerns about precedent and resources. How the Lumbee achieve full recognition, address economic challenges in one of North Carolina's poorest counties, and maintain community shapes this large but partially-recognized people's future.
References
- Sider, G. M. (1993). Lumbee Indian Histories: Race, Ethnicity, and Indian Identity in the Southern United States
- Lowery, M. M. (2010). Lumbee Indians in the Jim Crow South: Race, Identity, and the Making of a Nation
- Dial, A. L. & Eliades, D. K. (1975). The Only Land I Know: A History of the Lumbee Indians