Who Are the Kalmyks?
The Kalmyks are a Mongolic people who migrated from Central Asia to the Caspian steppe in the early 17th century, creating Europe's only Buddhist nation. Numbering approximately 180,000 in Russia's Kalmyk Republic, they practice Tibetan Buddhism, speak a Mongolic language, and maintain pastoral nomadic traditions on the semi-arid grasslands between the Volga River and the Caspian Sea. Their presence in Europe resulted from one of history's great migrations—and their survival despite genocide during World War II testifies to remarkable resilience.
The Great Migration
The Kalmyks are descended from the Oirat Mongols of western Mongolia and Xinjiang. In the early 1600s, facing pressure from rival groups, several Oirat tribes migrated westward across Central Asia, reaching the Caspian region by 1630. There they established the Kalmyk Khanate, becoming vassals of the Russian tsar while maintaining considerable autonomy. At their height, the Kalmyks controlled vast territories and fielded cavalry armies that fought alongside (and sometimes against) Russia.
In 1771, dissatisfied with increasing Russian control, approximately 170,000 Kalmyks attempted to return to their ancestral homeland in Central Asia. Less than half survived the arduous journey across hostile terrain and attacking tribes. Those who remained in Russia became the ancestors of today's Kalmyks, while those who reached China became the Torghut minority of Xinjiang. This traumatic "Great Flight" is remembered as a defining moment in Kalmyk history.
Tibetan Buddhism in Europe
The Kalmyks converted to Tibetan Buddhism in the 17th century, making them Europe's only indigenous Buddhist people. Their Buddhism follows the Gelug school (the same as the Dalai Lama), with monasteries, monks, and the full apparatus of Tibetan religious practice transplanted to the European steppe. At its height, the Kalmyk Buddhist establishment included dozens of monasteries and thousands of monks.
Soviet persecution devastated this tradition. All monasteries were destroyed, monks were killed or imprisoned, and religious practice was banned. After the Soviet collapse, Buddhism revived dramatically. New temples have been built, including the spectacular Golden Abode of Buddha Shakyamuni in Elista (Europe's largest Buddhist temple). The Dalai Lama has visited multiple times, and young Kalmyks again study for monastic ordination.
Deportation and Genocide
In December 1943, Stalin ordered the deportation of the entire Kalmyk population to Siberia and Central Asia, accusing them of collaboration with Nazi Germany (which had briefly occupied parts of Kalmykia). Within hours, approximately 93,000 Kalmyks were loaded onto cattle cars for journeys lasting weeks. Conditions were brutal: freezing temperatures, no food or water, disease.
Mortality during deportation and in the "special settlements" was catastrophic. Estimates suggest up to half the Kalmyk population died. For thirteen years, Kalmyks lived as internal exiles, forbidden to return home, their republic abolished, their identity erased from maps. Only in 1957 were survivors allowed to return, finding their homeland occupied by Russian settlers and their temples destroyed. This experience of near-annihilation profoundly shapes Kalmyk identity today.
Culture and Identity
Kalmyk culture blends Mongolian heritage with centuries of adaptation to the European steppe. The traditional economy centered on pastoral nomadism, herding sheep, cattle, horses, and camels across seasonal pastures. Felt tents (gers/yurts) served as housing, and mare's milk (kumis) and sheep products formed dietary staples. Horsemanship remained central to identity, and Kalmyk cavalry were renowned warriors.
The national epic, Jangar, recounts the deeds of heroic warriors in a mythological land. This epic—performed by bards in distinctive throat-singing style—preserved Mongolian literary heritage while developing unique Kalmyk characteristics. Traditional music features the dombra (two-stringed lute) and distinctive vocal techniques. Contemporary Kalmyk artists draw on these traditions while engaging with global Buddhist and Mongolian connections.
Contemporary Challenges
Post-Soviet Kalmykia faces significant challenges. Economic development lags behind Russian averages, and unemployment drives emigration. The Kalmyk language is endangered, with fewer young people achieving fluency as Russian dominates education and media. Environmental degradation threatens the steppe grasslands that sustained traditional herding.
Yet cultural revival is visible. Buddhist temples attract worshippers and tourists. Chess has become a Kalmyk passion (the republic hosted FIDE events and made chess mandatory in schools). Young people explore their heritage through music, martial arts, and connections with Mongolia. The memory of the deportation, now officially recognized as genocide, reinforces determination to survive as a distinct people in Europe.
References
- Guchinova, E.M. (2006). The Kalmyks: A Handbook. Routledge.
- Pohl, J.O. (1999). Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949. Greenwood Press.
- Bormannshinov, A. (1991). The Kalmyks and Their Language. Journal of Altaic Studies.