Who Are the Circassians?
The **Circassians** (self-name: Adyghe) are an indigenous people of the Northwest Caucasus Mountains, comprising several closely related groups including the **Adyghe**, **Kabardians**, and **Cherkess**. Today numbering approximately **3-4 million people worldwide**, the vast majority—perhaps 90%—live in diaspora, primarily in Turkey (over 2 million), Jordan, Syria, and other Middle Eastern countries. Only about **700,000** remain in their ancestral Caucasian homeland in the Russian republics of Adygea, Kabardino-Balkaria, and Karachay-Cherkessia. This dramatic disproportion resulted from the **Circassian Genocide** (1864), when Russian imperial forces expelled or killed perhaps 1-1.5 million Circassians following their conquest of the Caucasus—one of history's largest ethnic cleansings.
Mountain Warriors
For centuries, the Circassians were renowned as fierce warriors, defending their mountain homeland against successive empires. They resisted the Russian Empire for **101 years** (1763-1864)—one of history's longest sustained resistances to colonial conquest. Circassian military culture produced legendary cavalrymen whose skills were prized throughout the region; **Mamluk** Egypt was ruled by a Circassian military caste from 1382-1517. The Circassian code of conduct, **Adyghe Xabze**, emphasized honor, hospitality, bravery, and elaborate etiquette. Villages organized around defensive warfare; women were trained in basic combat; and the mountainous terrain provided natural fortifications. Russian conquest required massive military campaigns and scorched-earth tactics before the final defeats of 1864.
The Genocide and Exile
Following their final military defeat in 1864, the Russian Empire implemented ethnic cleansing on a massive scale. Circassian villages were destroyed; populations were driven toward the Black Sea coast; and Ottoman ships carried survivors to Turkey and the Middle East. Estimates suggest **600,000 to 1.5 million** Circassians were expelled; perhaps 400,000 or more died from violence, disease, and starvation during the expulsion and sea crossings. Those who survived settled in Ottoman territories—modern Turkey, Syria, Jordan, and beyond—where their descendants remain. Russia settled Cossacks and others on emptied Circassian lands. Georgia recognizes the events as genocide; Russia disputes this characterization. The 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics, held on sites of the expulsion, sparked Circassian protests and renewed international attention to this history.
Diaspora and Homeland
The Circassian diaspora maintained cultural identity across more than 150 years of exile. In Turkey, Circassians (perhaps 2-3 million, though exact numbers are debated as Turkey doesn't collect ethnic statistics) have assimilated while preserving distinct identity through village associations, folk dance groups, and cultural organizations. Jordan's Circassian community (about 170,000) enjoys special status, with guaranteed parliamentary representation and historical roles in the Hashemite monarchy's security forces. Syria's Circassians have been displaced by civil war, some returning to Russia. In the homeland, Circassians are minorities in their own republics, surrounded by Russian populations. Language survival varies—Kabardian has about 500,000 speakers, Adyghe fewer. Cultural revival efforts connect homeland and diaspora, though political tensions complicate Russian-diaspora relations.
Cultural Heritage
Circassian culture centers on **Adyghe Xabze**—an elaborate code governing social relations, hospitality, honor, and conduct. Hospitality obligations are sacred; guests receive absolute protection; and hosting involves elaborate ritual. Traditional music features the **shichepshin** (fiddle) and distinctive dance forms; Circassian dance has influenced folk traditions across the Caucasus. The **Nart sagas**—epic narratives about mythological heroes—represent rich oral literature shared with other Caucasian peoples. Traditional crafts include metalwork, embroidery, and felt-making. Islam, adopted primarily in the 17th-18th centuries, became central to identity, particularly in contrast to Orthodox Russian colonizers. Today, cultural organizations in both homeland and diaspora work to preserve language, transmit traditions, and maintain connections across a scattered people.
References
- Richmond, W. (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Rutgers University Press.
- King, C. (2008). The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus. Oxford University Press.
- Shenfield, S. D. (1999). "The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?" In The Massacre in History. Berghahn Books.
- Shami, S. (1998). "Circassian Encounters: The Self as Other and the Production of the Homeland in the North Caucasus." Development and Change, 29, 617-646.