Who Are the Cheyenne?
The Cheyenne (Tsitsistas, "the people") are an Algonquian-speaking Plains nation divided into the **Northern Cheyenne** of Montana and the **Southern Cheyenne** of Oklahoma, together numbering approximately 22,000 enrolled members. Originally farming people in Minnesota, the Cheyenne transformed into quintessential Plains buffalo hunters after migrating westward in the 1700s. They became renowned warriors, forming a close alliance with the Arapaho and later the Lakota Sioux. The Cheyenne are keepers of the **Sacred Arrows** (Mahuts) and **Sacred Buffalo Hat** (Is'siwun), ceremonial objects central to tribal identity, and fought alongside the Lakota in the most famous battles of the Plains Wars, including the Little Bighorn.
Sacred Ceremonies and Spiritual Life
Cheyenne spirituality centers on **Maheo** (the All-Being/Creator) and the sacred objects given to the people in mythic times. The **Sacred Arrows** (four arrows—two for hunting, two for war) embody collective tribal power; if damaged or captured, the tribe suffers disaster. The **Arrow Renewal** ceremony, performed when tribal welfare requires it, cleanses and renews the nation's spiritual power. The **Sacred Buffalo Hat**, kept by the Northern Cheyenne, ensures buffalo abundance. The **Sun Dance** (Ox'héhéom, "New Life Lodge"), performed annually, involves fasting, dancing, and sacrifice—men piercing their chests and tethering themselves to the center pole—to ensure tribal prosperity. The **Keeper of the Sacred Arrows** and **Keeper of the Sacred Buffalo Hat** are lifelong positions of highest spiritual authority, surpassing even political chiefs.
Warrior Societies and the Dog Soldiers
The Cheyenne organized warfare through **soldier societies**, each with distinct duties, regalia, and ceremonies. The most famous, the **Dog Soldiers** (Hotamétaneo'o), emerged in the early 1800s as an elite warrior society known for fierce bravery and willingness to stake themselves to the ground in battle, fighting to the death. During the Plains Wars, the Dog Soldiers became the core of Cheyenne resistance, conducting effective guerrilla warfare against the US Army. Other societies included the **Kit Fox**, **Elk**, **Red Shield**, and **Bowstring** warriors. Women had parallel societies supporting male warriors and conducting their own ceremonies. The **Council of Forty-Four** peace chiefs governed the tribe, deliberately excluding war chiefs to balance military and civil authority—a sophisticated system preventing militarism from dominating society.
Sand Creek Massacre and Resistance
The **Sand Creek Massacre** (November 29, 1864) remains central to Cheyenne memory. Peace chief Black Kettle's band, believing they were under US protection and flying an American flag, was attacked by Colorado militia under Colonel John Chivington. Approximately 150-200 Cheyenne, mostly women, children, and elderly, were killed and mutilated. Survivors joined relatives in resistance, and Cheyenne warriors fought at the Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) alongside Lakota allies, helping defeat Custer. After the wars, the Northern and Southern Cheyenne were separated: the southern bands sent to Oklahoma, the northern to Montana. The **Northern Cheyenne Exodus** (1878-79), when Dull Knife and Little Wolf led 300 people 1,500 miles from Oklahoma to Montana, refusing to remain in hostile southern territory, demonstrated Cheyenne determination to reach their homeland.
Contemporary Cheyenne Nations
The **Northern Cheyenne Reservation** in Montana (444,000 acres) and the **Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes** in Oklahoma represent contemporary Cheyenne governance. The Northern Cheyenne famously rejected coal mining that would have made the tribe wealthy but destroyed sacred lands—a decision affirmed repeatedly since the 1970s. The tribal college, Chief Dull Knife College, preserves language and culture. The Southern Cheyenne share jurisdiction with the Arapaho in Oklahoma, operating gaming facilities and cultural programs. Language revitalization faces challenges—perhaps 2,000 speakers remain—but immersion programs and master-apprentice teaching continue. The Sacred Arrows remain in Oklahoma with the Southern Cheyenne, while the Sacred Buffalo Hat stays with the Northern Cheyenne—a division mirroring the tribal split. Annual ceremonies including the Sun Dance and Arrow Renewal continue, maintaining Cheyenne spiritual traditions into the 21st century.
References
- Moore, J. H. (1996). The Cheyenne. Blackwell Publishers.
- Stands In Timber, J., & Liberty, M. (1967). Cheyenne Memories. Yale University Press.
- Grinnell, G. B. (1923). The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Ways of Life. Yale University Press.
- Weist, T. (1977). A History of the Cheyenne People. Montana Council for Indian Education.