Who Are the Arapaho?
The Arapaho (Hinono'eino', "Our People") are an Algonquian-speaking Plains people, closely allied with the Cheyenne and historically ranging across the Great Plains from Montana to Colorado. Today numbering approximately 12,000 enrolled members, they are divided between the **Northern Arapaho** (Wyoming, sharing Wind River Reservation with Eastern Shoshone) and the **Southern Arapaho** (Oklahoma, federally affiliated with the Cheyenne as the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes). The Arapaho are renowned for their deeply spiritual culture centered on the **Flat Pipe** (one of the most sacred objects of any Plains tribe), elaborate age-graded warrior societies, and their complex symbolic art. They experienced the Sand Creek Massacre (1864) and other tragedies, yet maintained cultural traditions that continue today.
The Sacred Flat Pipe
The Arapaho possess one of the most sacred objects of any Plains people: the **Flat Pipe** (Seicha, "the Sacred Wheel"). According to tradition, the Creator gave this pipe to the Arapaho at the beginning of time; it is kept in a special lodge by a hereditary keeper and brought out only for the most important ceremonies. The pipe's tobacco is never smoked; it represents the covenant between the Arapaho and the Creator. The Flat Pipe embodies Arapaho identity—as long as it exists, the people will exist. Alongside the Flat Pipe, the **Sacred Wheel** (Betheteen) represents the universe and ceremonial knowledge. These objects give Arapaho religion unusual depth and continuity; unlike some Plains peoples whose sacred objects were captured or destroyed, the Arapaho protected their sacred bundles through every catastrophe. This spiritual foundation supported Arapaho survival when material circumstances became desperate.
Age-Grade Societies
The Arapaho developed an elaborate system of **age-graded societies** through which men progressed during their lifetimes. Beginning as youth, men advanced through eight societies including the Kit-Fox, Stars, Tomahawks, Spear, Crazy, and Dog lodges, culminating in the Water-Sprinkling Old Men—the elders who directed ceremonies and tribal affairs. Each lodge had distinct dances, regalia, songs, and responsibilities; advancement required payments, ceremonial knowledge, and community respect. This system integrated individuals into collective life, ensured knowledge transmission across generations, and organized military and ceremonial activities. Women had parallel sodalities though less formally structured. The age-grade system created strong social cohesion; an Arapaho man's identity was shaped by his lodge affiliations throughout life. Some societies continue today, though transformed from their 19th-century form.
Sand Creek and Tragedy
The **Sand Creek Massacre** (November 29, 1864) remains central to Arapaho memory. Arapaho and Cheyenne under leaders including Left Hand had gathered at Sand Creek, Colorado, believing they were under government protection. At dawn, Colonel John Chivington's Colorado militia attacked the sleeping village, killing 150-200 people, mostly women, children, and elderly. Soldiers mutilated bodies, taking scalps and body parts as trophies. Left Hand, a peace advocate, was killed; Black Kettle's band of Cheyenne suffered equally. The massacre—condemned even by military investigations at the time—represented American willingness to murder peaceful Indians despite promises of safety. After Sand Creek, some Arapaho joined the Dog Soldiers in retaliatory warfare, while others continued seeking peace. By 1878, the Northern Arapaho were placed at Wind River, Wyoming, on Eastern Shoshone land—their former enemies—while Southern Arapaho were assigned to Oklahoma with the Southern Cheyenne.
Contemporary Arapaho Nations
The **Northern Arapaho Tribe** shares Wind River Reservation with Eastern Shoshone, maintaining separate governance while sharing resources. Wind River faces severe challenges—poverty, health disparities, substance abuse—but also maintains vibrant cultural traditions including the Sun Dance, sweat lodges, and language programs. The **Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes** in Oklahoma govern both peoples jointly, operating casinos, farms, and various enterprises from headquarters in Concho. The Arapaho language is critically endangered: fewer than 1,000 speakers remain, mostly elderly, though immersion programs (including the Arapaho Language Project) work to teach children. Both tribes maintain the Sun Dance and ceremonial traditions; the Flat Pipe remains in Northern Arapaho custody. Notable Arapaho include artist Carl Sweezy, whose early 20th-century works documented traditional life, and contemporary musicians, athletes, and scholars. The Arapaho exemplify how profound spiritual traditions can anchor a people through centuries of trauma and change.
References
- Fowler, L. (1982). Arapahoe Politics, 1851-1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority. University of Nebraska Press.
- Dorsey, G. A., & Kroeber, A. L. (1903). Traditions of the Arapaho. Field Columbian Museum.
- Trenholm, V. C. (1970). The Arapahoes, Our People. University of Oklahoma Press.
- Anderson, J. D. (2001). The Four Hills of Life: Northern Arapaho Knowledge and Life Movement. University of Nebraska Press.